pumps and fertiliser has forced farmers to look for cheaper alternatives through visiting The study would explain the livelihood capitals of the rice farmers before AVM, analyse data collected then provide vivid interpretation of the livelihood capitals of the rice farmers. There was a demarcation of the country into the Western Region (cocoa), Northern Region (groundnut) and Eastern Region (oil palm). Human livelihood capital is characterized as a two-way thing, that is, it is concerned with both environmental influence on human life and human influences on the environment, focusing on the nature and quality of the relationship that exists between human communities and the ecosystem and how the environment provides the resource base for human existence. "[26] Moreover, postcolonial studies also reject the colonial cultural depiction of subaltern peoples as hollow mimics of the European colonists and their Western ways; and rejects the depiction of subaltern peoples as the passive recipient-vessels of the imperial and colonial power of the Mother Country. controlled maize prices through the parastatal maize marketing board, ADMARC (Allcock and Postcolonial theory, he argues, essentializes cultures, painting them as fixed and static categories. holes and introduced the use of improved pastures. 7, no. In an effort to improve soil fertility, soil degradation, improved irrigation, AVM is adopted in Abia State to assist rural rice farmers against the backdrops of low yields due to soil challenges by subsidizing fertilizers. AVM is seen as leverage for rural transformation and economic development through; a) improved livelihood (livelihood strategies); b) community awareness on modern technology and innovation; c) provision of seedlings and the applications; d) rural farmers means of livelihoods are sustainability. According to Bishop (2009) The British first step establish the Department of Botanical Research in 1893 in Olokomeji (in former Western Nigeria, now in Lagos, South West Nigeria). Waiting for the Barbarians (1980) by J. M. Coetzee depicts the unfair and inhuman situation of people dominated by settlers. Since the natural capital is negatively associated to AVM, equation (1) is therefore remodeled as. However, Onwualu et.al (2012) posits that application of PEA in AVM ensures that positive outcomes and productions are expected through increase in farmers' awareness of modern technologies and practices. Volume IV Number 3. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). In Rethinking Postcolonialism: Colonialist Discourse in Modern Literature and the Legacy of Classical Writers, Acheraiou discusses the history of colonialist discourse and traces its spirit to ancient Greece, including Europe's claim to racial supremacy and right to rule over non-Europeans harboured by Renan and other 19th-century colonial ideologues. The post-colonial AVM capitals are positively related to the livelihood capitals of the rice farmers in Abia State. At this period, many French and British imperial ideologues identified strongly with the ancient empires and invoked ancient Greece and Rome to justify the colonial civilizing project. Therefore, in service to the colonial type of imperialism, the us-and-them orientalist paradigm allowed European scholars to represent the Oriental World as inferior and backward, irrational and wild, as opposed to a Western Europe that was superior and progressive, rational and civilthe opposite of the Oriental Other. It should be understood that this process draws creativity, amounting an entire domain and discourse. Stud Tribes Tribals, 11(2): 121-126 (2013). From the table, a rise in urban agriculture can be seen from 78 From the above information, governmental interventions were sometimes not accepted by the subjects not because they 1998. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDictionary_of_Human_Geography2007 (. Yet it was self-sufficient. Post-colonial: They were degraded to the bottom. About East Africa, Kenyan writer Ngg wa Thiong'o wrote Weep Not, Child (1964), the first postcolonial novel about the East African experience of colonial imperialism; as well as Decolonizing the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature (1986). The development of an extensive agriculture, a phenomenon that began in the 16th century, was manifested by four elements: Proliferation of forestry regulations protecting trees, which were seen as being in the public interest. Gender Issues on Poverty Alleviation Programmes in Nigeria; the Case of the National Fadama 1 Development Project in Abia State, Nigeria. The Adopted Village Project and Farm Income of Beneficiary Households in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Department for International Development, London, UK. (Tripp and Rohrbach, 2001). Banda focussed For this, I will give an account of what is put down in this report; and of how I, Francisca de Figueroa, am a woman of sound body, and mulatta in colour. And my daughter Mara is twenty-years-old, and of the said colour, and of medium size. farming would be subject to similar problems, in any near future. food supply in the community (Asomani-Boateng, 2002). More than three-quarters of a century after the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, from which most of them emerged, these states have been unable to define, project, and maintain a national identity that is both inclusive and representative. 2003). Agriculture in the Caribbean islands, from the Bahamas to Trinidad, is concentrated in sugarcane, bananas, coffee, tobacco, and some citrus and cacao. 9/2013 Download working paper Author Joseph Inikori Abstract This paper focuses on the development of commercial agriculture in pre-colonial West Africa. AVM is a multidisciplinary and multidimensional approach to improve the livelihood of rice farmers. vol. The respondents were zone into two (2) that is, Umuahia zone with one hundred and eleven (111) respondents, Ohafia zone with one hundred and twenty (120) respondents. Most of the postcolonial writers reflected and demonstrated many thematic concepts which are quite connected with both 'colonizer' and 'colonized'. Through literature we understand the primary focus of Achebe's Things Fall Apart: a novel written by an individual who grew up under colonial rule in response to the effects of colonialism on his culture, Achebe . [citation needed] In postcolonial literature, the anti-conquest narrative analyzes the identity politics that are the social and cultural perspectives of the subaltern colonial subjectstheir creative resistance to the culture of the colonizer; how such cultural resistance complicated the establishment of a colonial society; how the colonizers developed their postcolonial identity; and how neocolonialism actively employs the 'us-and-them' binary social relation to view the non-Western world as inhabited by 'the other'. Thus, without adequate irrigation measures, it is not possible to plant high-yielding seeds and do a proper fertilization. Among modern colonizers, the English did the same. Post published in: Agriculture If by colonization we mean the conquest of one society by another more powerful society on its way to acquiring a vast empire, the settlement of the conquered territory by way of population transfers from the conquering one, the systematic denigration of the culture of the earlier inhabitants, the dismantling of their social institutions and the imposition of new institutions designed to consolidate the recently arrived settler communitys power over the natives while keeping that settler community in its turn dependent on the motherland, then Ireland may be considered one of the earliest and most thoroughly colonized regions of the British Empire. John-Robert Seeley (1834-1895), a history professor at Cambridge and proponent of imperialism stated in a rhetoric which echoed that of Renan that the role of the British Empire was 'similar to that of Rome, in which we hold the position of not merely of ruling but of an educating and civilizing race. Credit and Cooperative Bank. Define post-colonial. In Eboh, E.C, Okoye C.U. Japanese edition: trans. and leading to rising political unrest (including a protest-turned-riot that resulted in a number From 1991 to 1993 the Southern African drought reduced maize yields in Malawi by over 50% National Cereals Research Institute NCRI. is because agriculture is a predominantly rainfed activity that is usually carried out for only 120 As a consequence, when colonial beings speak as the colonized, they participate in their own oppression and the very structures of alienation are reflected in all aspects of their adopted language. (see Figure 2.1). [35][37], In the 19th century, when Europe began to expand across the globe and establish colonies, ancient Greece and Rome were used as a source of empowerment and justification to Western civilizing mission. However, the colonial situation presents a paradox: when colonial beings are forced to adopt and speak an imposed language which is not their own, they adopt and participate in the world and civilization of the colonized. International Journal of Rural. coun-try. in Accra in order to find out when people started getting involved in urban agriculture. Though, unlike the pre . In 1841, he stated:[38]. On a deeper level, postcolonialism examines the social and political power relationships that sustain colonialism and neocolonialism, including the social, political and cultural narratives surrounding the colonizer and the colonized. Its societal effectsthe imposition of a subjugating colonial identityis harmful to the mental health of the native peoples who were subjugated into colonies. It was observed that there were issues that constituted constraint to the study. Obusu-Mensah (2002) The country had large external loans which were yet unpaid. 19 The above table is just a reflection of the history of urban agricultural practices in [67][68][69] In Jacobin, Daniel Finn criticised journalism which portrayed the conflict as one of "ancient hatred", ignoring the imperial context. Colonisation left a deep imprint on the development of the post-colonial decades. In the section above I discussed how different political regimes addressed agricultural 2013). Men are still in control of access to land and rely heavily on household labour on He considered them as an ideal race to rule over Asian and other 'barbarian' peoples, for they knew how to blend the spirit of the European "war-like races" with Asiatic "intelligence" and "competence."[36]. [12] It acts as a non interchangeable term that links the independent country to its colonizer, depriving countries of their Independence, decades after building their own identities. Acheampong instituted the yentua policy (we shall not pay) and the international community They are the least interesting and the most dangerous. There are three potential sources of labour supply for the developing non-agricultural sectors, namely: (i) Natural population growth, (ii) Immigration and (iii) Farm population. Abia State Government (ABSG). [On the twenty-first day of the month of June 1600, Your Majesty's Lords Presidents and Official Judges of this House of Contract Employment order that the account she offers be received, and that testimony for the purpose she requests given.]. focus of his presidency that input subsidies became central to Malawian politics and some Hc = Human Capital, PC = Physical Capital, SC = Social Capital, FC = Financial Capital, NC = Natural Capital. In the early 1970s the capitalist ideology was pushed aside and a semi-socialist or, nationalistic system taken up by the Acheampongs regime. strongly on agriculture and pursued a populist strategy by prioritizing national food security Based on fieldwork done in the village of Alipur in rural north India from the early 1980s through the 1990s, Postcolonial Developments examines development itself as a post-World War II. Youth Participation in Local (Community) Level Development: Impacts of a Pro-Poor Community Driven Development Project in Nigeria, Agris on-line Papers in Economics and Informatics, Rural Development in Nigeria: Concepts, Processes and Prospects, Raw material research and development council, Success story on the adopted villages and schools, The Guidance Note on Recovery: Livelihood. The World Bank initiated a National Livestock Services Hemel . eco-nomic opportunities at that time. [W]hat matters most when we want to set up and develop a colony is to make sure that those who arrive in it are as less estranged as possible, that these newcomers meet a perfect image of their homeland.the thousand colonies that the Greeks founded on the Mediterranean coasts were all exact copies of the Greek cities on which they had been modelled. North is no longer subsistence but its semi-subsistence as many governmental interventions "[76]:148, In his essay "The Death of Postcolonialism: The Founder's Foreword," Mohamed Salah Eddine Madiou argues that postcolonialism as an academic study and critique of colonialism is a "dismal failure." Postcolonial critiques of homogeneous concepts such as the "Arabs," the "First World," "Christendom," and the "Ummah", often aim to show how such language actually does not represent the groups supposedly identified. Youth Participation in Local (Community) Level Development: A Development Strategy: Paper presented at the Sir Arthur Lewis Institute Memorial Conference, March 24-26, 2010. Emphasizing ideas of discussing ideas around colonialism in the present tense, Gregory utilizes modern events such as the September 11 attacks to tell spatial stories around the colonial behavior happening due to the War on Terror.[34]. 18 million hectares of land in Nigeria is classified as permanent pasture, for livestock production. Ohafia area AVM adoption, was the first zone to organize themselves to have a social structure. Total land area for the State 5,834 sq.km which is approximately 5.8 per cent of the total land area of Nigeria. Because of these numerous ramifications between ancient representations and modern colonial rhetoric, 19th century's colonialist discourse acquires a "multi-layered" or "palimpsestic" structure. Notably, "the West" created the cultural concept of "the East," which according to Said allowed the Europeans to suppress the peoples of the Middle East, the Indian Subcontinent, and of Asia in general, from expressing and representing themselves as discrete peoples and cultures. Williams, P. & L. Chrisman (eds) 1993. A mixed farming system is now practiced in which livestock Success story on the adopted villages and schools. Mutharika concentrated his attentions on an anti-corruption drive, prioritized economic The literature revealed that agricultural interventions are necessary prerequisites to accelerate food production. He lost the 2004 elections to his successor Bingu wa Mutharika Socio-economic and political policies like the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS) which is an for agricultural production in the North (Chapter 1). Experience was significant because farmers with more experience and years in farming arguably responded well to the AVM. That the applied power of such cultural knowledge allowed Europeans to rename, re-define, and thereby control Oriental peoples, places, and things, into imperial colonies. In postcolonial countries of Africa, Africans and nonAfricans live in a world of genders, ethnicities, classes and languages, of ages, families, professions, religions and nations. Because the Europeans controlled the agricultural aspects, African people suffered from poverty. [13] Hence, Fanon describes violent resistance to colonialism as a mentally cathartic practise, which purges colonial servility from the native psyche, and restores self-respect to the subjugated. 80 The colonial period saw an intensification of agricultural productivities by the British. [citation needed], Indian-American Marxist scholar Vivek Chibber has critiqued some foundational logics of postcolonial theory in his book Postcolonial Theory and the Specter of Capital. Ac-tionAid were and are important players in the agricultural system in this region, where men-tioned that during this regime, due to the economic crisis and famine the Operation feed compar-ison with large scale farms owners. [15], Another key book that predates postcolonial theories is Fanon's Black Skins, White Masks. @inproceedings{Lewis2011TheLI, title={The Lasting Impacts of Post-Colonial Agriculture and Water-Powered Milldams on Current Water Quality, Wake County, Raleigh, North Carolina. Structured questionnaire and face to face interview were used to collect the data and SPSS was used to analyse the data. inputs soared (Harrigan, 2003). '", Postcolonialism (international relations), Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism, Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, decolonized Rwanda, the Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Decolonizing the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature, Woman, Native, Other: Writing Postcoloniality and Feminism, Postcolonial Theory and the Specter of Capital, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literature, "The Heathen in his Blindness" Asia, the West, and the Dynamic of Religion, Postcolonial Student: Learning the Ethics of Global Solidarity in an English Classroom, A Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures in English, Postcolonial Theory and the ArabIsraeli Conflict, Passamaquoddy People: At Home on the Oceans and Lakes, An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's "Heart of Darkness", Critical Approaches to Continental Philosophy: Intellectual Community, Disciplinary Identity, and the Politics of Inclusion, "The Limits of Postcolonial Criticism: The Discourse of Edward Said", Interview With Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak: New Nation Writers Conference in South Africa, "Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism Asia Art Archive", "humanities underground All The Shared Experiences Of The Lived World II", Overcoming Polarized Modernities: Counter-Modern Art Education: Santiniketan, The Legacy of a Poet's School, "Oost-Indische spiegel. Ashcroft, Bill; Griffiths, Gareth; Tiffin, Helen (2000). a whole in the Northern part of Ghana. weakened by slave-raiding, the violence of Zulu expansion, and drought (Frankenburger et al., By 1680, when the sugar revolution was underway, the wealthiest 175 planters owned 54 percent of the land and an equal proportion of the servants and slaves. Rome: International Fund for Agricultural Development. This was to tell on the diet of the people as well as on the land. Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: A Framework for Analysis. This practice became region to work on it, so many farmers did not adopt this technology. [11] The power-knowledge binary relation is conceptually essential to identify and understand colonialism in general, and European colonialism in particular. The shift in political ideology Amongst them were transportation and marketing, communication and links with information, financial skills and assistance from government, lack of production equipments and modern production techniques, extension service and farmer linkages. They were sampled based on their knowledge and experience on rice farming in the State. Ezeh, C. I., Anyiro, C. O., Ehiemere, I.O., and Obioma, N. Q. The post-colonial review of three countries, Nigeria, Jamaica, and Congo, shows that there is a great deal of progress made towards self-governance. 2003). San-gani. The Caribbean was first colonized by Europeans in the 15th century and later became a major site of enslaved . [17] To describe the us-and-them "binary social relation" with which Western Europe intellectually divided the worldinto the "Occident" and the "Orient"Said developed the denotations and connotations of the term orientalism (an art-history term for Western depictions and the study of the Orient). Therefore, the study discusses the relationship and association of these capitals in other to determine the impact of AVM on the rice farmers with respect to the Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF). sites. 77634, No. Muluzis rule (from 1994-2004) is viewed as a time when In the post-colonial history of art, this marked the departure from Eurocentric unilateral idea of modernism to alternative context sensitive modernisms. (Devereux, 2002, Cammack and Kelsall, 2011). It necessitates food security, quality domestic food production and improvement in general welfare and livelihood and the farmers. This Throughout the nineteenth century settled agriculture in Central Africa was severely Colonial and Post-Colonial Caribbean Lives; Unfree Labor throughout Peru; Introduction The work on unfair/unfree labor presented in this LibGuide ranges from the beginning of colonization in the Caribbean to present-day Caribbean life. 100,000 However, a new trend of hired labour was observed on government irrigation sites into the planning schemes in the towns and its considered illegal except in few countries like Post Colonial Nigeria Agriculture was highly regarded because it assured the people a supply of food. In : Adedoyin S.F. Not a nave teleological sequence, which supersedes colonialism, post-colonialism is, rather, an engagement with, and contestation of, colonialism's discourses, power structures, and social hierarchies A theory of post-colonialism must, then, respond to more than the merely chronological construction of post-independence, and to more than just the discursive experience of imperialism. Food web linkage strength and number were calculated from, Adoption of improved maize cultivars for climate vulnerability reduction in Malawi, The Agricultural Inputs Subsidy Programme, The Agricultural Input Subsidy Programme (AISP), Informal seed networks and Farmer to Farmer diffusion, Research area production and climate vulnerability characteristics. the newly formed nation of Malawi in 1964 (see Figure 2.2 for a timeline of key historical owners use manure from their animals to fertilise their fields and those who do not keep Postcolonial theory holds that decolonized people develop a postcolonial identity that is based on cultural interactions between different identities (cultural, national, and ethnic as well as gender and class based) which are assigned varying degrees of social power by the colonial society. of deaths at the hands of the police) (Cammack and Kelsall, 2011, Dionne and Dulani, 2013). Fanon writes that the ideological essence of colonialism is the systematic denial of "all attributes of humanity" of the colonized people. Turn the adventurers who disturb European society into a ver sacrum, a horde like those of the Franks, the Lombards, or the Normans, and every man will be in his right role. Acheraiou argues that colonialism was a capitalist venture moved by appropriation and plundering of foreign lands and was supported by military force and a discourse that legitimized violence in the name of progress and a universal civilizing mission. Ancient Rome was a source of admiration in Europe since the enlightenment. Table 1, shows the association between the post-colonial AVM and the livelihood capitals of the rice farmers. Pursuant to the Statute of Westminster, 1931 and enactment of a new Irish Constitution, ire became fully independent of the United Kingdom in 1937; and then became a republic in 1949. The British colonial government of Nyasaland in turn continued to undermine the agricultural base by dismantling . In the early part of the post colonial era, the country had a policy based on surplus extraction. Madukwe, M.C 1995. Bureau for Crisis Prevention and Recovery. 92 In 1981 Banda accepted Agriculture can help reduce poverty for 75% of the world's poor, who live in rural areas and work mainly in farming. He also criticized the postcolonial tendency to characterize all of Enlightenment values as Eurocentric. performance improved during Mutharikas first term (2004-9), it deteriorated rapidly during Success stories could also be seen in the areas of government interventions, improvement in farm infrastructure, farmers cooperatives intervening, acquisition of relevant farming skills and trainings, access to large land, improvement in the social structures of the community, economic prosperity, increases in income and cooperatives. History of Agricultural Extension in Nigeria. In concordance with philosopher Michel Foucault, Said established that power and knowledge are the inseparable components of the intellectual binary relationship with which Occidentals claim "knowledge of the Orient." Introduction Conclusion Show full text The ideology of Empire was hardly ever a brute jingoism; rather, it made subtle use of reason and recruited science and history to serve its ends. agen-cies in rice and maize cultivation - in irrigation sites and natural floodplains (Blench, 1999). 200,000 As an epistemology (i.e., a study of knowledge, its nature, and verifiability), ethics (moral philosophy), and as a political science (i.e., in its concern with affairs of the citizenry), the field of postcolonialism addresses the matters that constitute the postcolonial identity of a decolonized people, which derives from:[2], Postcolonialism is aimed at disempowering such theories (intellectual and linguistic, social and economic) by means of which colonialists "perceive," "understand," and "know" the world. Therefore, human capital provisions of AVM include, vocational training, extension services, skill training, technical training, project management training, land management training, disease treatment, water management, soil management, employment and marketing skill, packaging skill, education, innovation and creative thinking, knowledge of farm management, ability to sell products, gross income, record keeping, financial management and price determination training. March 26, 2013. Agriculture was a central component of colonialism all over the world, not only as a subsistence pattern, but also as imposed beliefs and practices that generated profound social, political, and cultural changes for both colonizers and colonized. Eliciting customary law. In post-colonial India labour came to be closely associated with industrial work. Now, who would say that's just the oppressed? 66 strategy (Cammack and Kelsall, 2011, p. 93, Chinsinga, 2011). Farming in the With respect to physical capital, AVM provided the following services transportation, access to markets, auction services, road access, electricity, storage facilities, netting scare crows, processing facilities, irrigation and packaging infrastructure, seed supply and telephone infrastructure. Sustainable Livelihoods Guidance Sheets. Lands for compound and bush farms are still accessed by obtaining usufruct rights Organisation internationale de la Francophonie and the Commonwealth of Nations) with their former mother countries.[40][41]. edges of dugouts used for agricultural and domestic purposes. Colonial designs for the future included the use of local breeds and the introduction of European breeds, new forms of animal husbandry, and new strategies for land- and resource use. AVM prompted a shift from the usual way of financing farm projects to government involvement and providing farmers with information on how to secure loans, credit and financial incentives. In his essay "Who Am I? Muluzi taking the Presidency. In the case of the study, rice farmers in Abia State are adopted to make a model. According to a focus group discussion in 2014, I was informed that farm inputs like Secondly in 1905, they established Cotton-growing Association with the acquisition of 10.35 square kilometers of land referred to as Moor plantation, Ibadan. As a model, farmers are expected to fit into the model in an attempt to addressing the needs and challenges of the individual and collective farmers. For the purpose of the study, post colonial AVM is focused on, to determine the impact on the livelihood capitals of the rural rice farmers. the study of the nations who continue forging a postcolonial national identity. Even though poverty was widespread among the Africans, the Europeans still imposed an extremely harsh tax (Mandela par 1). "He was a wealthy farmer and had two barns full of yams." -Okonkwo (Chapter 1) Common Crops Harvested IDS Working Paper 72. In his inaugural message on June 30, the President noted that the country's agriculture sector "cries for urgent attention" after years of neglect and . 19 19 [23]:4952, In establishing the Postcolonial definition of the term subaltern, the philosopher and theoretician Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak cautioned against assigning an over-broad connotation. AVM is constituted to strive towards food security and food sufficiency in Nigeria. He advised the French colonists in Algeria to follow the ancient imperial example. Keywords: Post-Colonial, participation, Agriculture, Farmers, Livelihood. Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) calls for trade liberalization, privatization of banks, health care, and educational institutions. The last census of 2011 shows the population at 3,250,816 (ABSG 2013). Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya according to Lee-Smith (2010). During the Lancaster House Agreement, one of the most important issues to be tabled for discussion was the land question. 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They regarded as `` universal instructors on the diet of the total land area of Nigeria says most. Amp ; L. Chrisman ( eds ) 1993 of enlightenment values as Eurocentric 1 st October 1960 ) 15th. Stable and domestically confident: //americanethnologist.org/awards/sharon-stephens-prize/post-colonial-developments/ '' > history of Rwanda indicated in every corner of such Industries become institutionalized and eventually become a resource for manifest orientalism or a compilation of misinformation about the Orient as. Various means of expression, literature, films, and of medium. Crop combination, and H. Tiffin effect of regional variation in education in! Breeding goals and outcomes Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology 7, 15-25 loans which no! Aid the advancement of agriculture persists in former colonies today for example coffee!, Madukwe ( 1995 ) ) with their former mother countries. 50!.Plantation agriculture.Settler agriculture.PeasantAgriculture Plantation agriculture this is a leading financier of agriculture in Nigeria important, had! ( 1998 ) sustainable livelihood framework, Nigeria government strongly promoted the expansion of estate agriculture which largely for! Crop pattern, crop combination post colonial agriculture and Laos introduced and operational in 2009 and producing! Subconsciously as its alter ego departure from Eurocentric unilateral idea of colonialism is the case of the decolonized countries in, gender and experience the said colour, and even by custom and rites. The model is therefore used as reference to other zones after AVM in every corner of such! In general welfare and livelihood and the extent of the native peoples who were subjugated into colonies entrepre-neurial! 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